Update Comments:

The article below seeks to examine the evolution of the Coaching, NLP and EQ-i processes and how they can be applied in a coaching scenario. The Assignment was submitted as part of the certification process for the BAR-ON EQ-i test method. Since completing the research piece below (which was submitted as a requirement for the IT Carlow Level 8 Special Award in Emotional Intelligence in 2010), I came across the iWAM (inventory of Work Attitudes and Motivators) EQ test. Unlike the Bar-On test, the iWAM measures attitudes which are the basis for a person’s competencies. iWAM goes much deeper into a subject’s metaprograms (cognitive patterns) to help understand why they do what they do in the work environment.

 

Introduction:

The last century has seen significantly increased developments in the field of human psychology and our overall understanding of how we ‘operate’ as individuals and in our interactions with our environment. This assignment will examine the evolution of human intelligence as well as exploring how the modern concepts of Coaching, Neuro Linguistic Programming (NLP) and Emotional Intelligence (EQ-i) testing can be used in a clinical environment when working with clients.

 

History:

 

The subject of Psychology has been studied since ancient times. According to Charles Abramson and Craig Satterfield (2004) the first recorded psychological experiment was conducted in Egypt by Psamtik I in 700 BCE. Dr. Jonathan Plucker (2007) highlights the various ‘ages’ in the evolution of Human Intelligence as follows:

 

• Historical Foundations. This period includes all early foundation work ranging from Plato to Itard.

 

• Modern Foundations. This is the period when Psychology began to separate from subjects like Mathematics, Philosophy and Biology and includes the works of individuals like Locke and Charcot.

 

• The Great Schools. This period marked the advent of many of the great European Schools in Psychology. Many of the famous American Psychologists studied in Europe and later returned to the US and opened similar facilities there. This period also marks the increase in popularity of the study of Intelligence, bolstered by the work of Wilhelm Wundt, James McKeen Cattell, G. S. Hall, and Hermann Ebbinghaus.

 

• The Great Schools’ Influence. This period marked the increase in the level of theoretical and empirical investigations in intelligence. One of the greatest milestones of the period was the US Army’s Alpha and Beta testing program which were developed under the direction of Robert Mearns Yerkes. These programs provided the first Group Intelligence Tests and were the basis for all subsequent testing.

 

• Contemporary Explorations. This period continued to build on the work of the previous period. New Statistical methods helped to make standardised testing of intelligence and achievement a way of life in most Western countries.

 

• Current Efforts. Current developments in intelligence theories particularly in  the formation of more complex multiple intelligence theories have resulted in a de-emphasis on the use of traditional standardised test methods. Technological advances have also enabled the development of new test methods. Finally this period has also witnessed the emergence of new area of study in which environmental, biological, and psychological aspects of intelligence are studied simultaneously. This has been brought about by the development of new genetic and neurological methodologies.

 

 

Emotional Intelligence testing (EQ-i) has its genesis in the current ‘era’ of psychology evolution. EQ-i tests, such as the Bar-On method measure the “emotional-social intelligence as a cross-section of interrelated emotional and social competencies, skills and facilitators that impact intelligent behavior” (Bar-On, Reuvens (2007)).

 

Neuro Linguistic Programming (NLP) began in the 1970’s as a result of the work of John Grinder (Linguistics) and Richard Bandler (mathematics and gestalt therapy). According to the NLP University (1999), ‘NLP is a multi-dimensional process that involves the development of behavioral competence and flexibility, but also involves strategic thinking and an understanding of the mental and cognitive processes behind behavior’. NLP presupposes that:

 

• As human beings we experience and respond to the world around us through our sensory representational systems. It is these experiences that give us our ‘reality’. In turn the ‘reality’ that we experience determine how we behave.

 

• The processes that take place within us (intra) as well as between us (inter), other human beings and our environment are systemic. Together these processes form a network of complex systems and sub-systems which interact and influence each other.

 

In his book ‘Looking for Spinosa’ (2003), Antonio Damasio separates emotions from feelings and suggests that “..emotions are actions or movements, many of them public, visible to others as they occur in the face, in the voice and in specific behaviours”. He further suggests that “Feelings are always hidden…playing out in the theater of the mind”. Throughout his book, Damasio echoes the theory put forward by the philosopher, Spinosa in the 17th century that link the processes of the body and the mind together. This view appears to support that of NLP.

 

The profession of coaching has its origins in North America in the 1980’s when a former Financial Planner, Thomas J Leonard recognised the need to provide professional coaching to help people. He developed his skills over the next ten years and set up the Coaching University in the early 90’s. Since then coaching has evolved as a global profession.

 

Coaching focuses on helping the client to determine and achieve personal goals. It is a thought provoking and creative process that inspires them to maximise their personal and professional potential. Because the coach works with the client, the coach/client relationship must be a partnership in order to be successful. Because Coaching focuses on working with people to identify and achieve future personal goals, it deals a lot more with emotions and feelings. 

 

What we have seen is that in the latter part of the 20th Century there has been considerable movement away from the traditional practices in psychology towards a ‘softer’  approach which looks more to understand how we perceive and interact with our surroundings as well as ourselves.

 

In the next section, we will observe how the three distinct practices of Coaching, NLP and EQ-i could be combined to form a very effective method for helping people identify and overcome many issues.

 

 

Coaching, NLP and EQ-i as a Clinical Process:

We have seen how the three distinct processes of Coaching, NLP and EQ-i developed, particularly over the last 30 years or so. As we enter the 21st Century, the ability to combine the processes of all three and use them to effectively help an individual must be considered.

 

Coaching and NLP have been used both separately and together since they began. Potential clients will find Practitioners who use either or both during their sessions. In reality, Coaching is the basis for working with clients.

 

As the coaching process works towards recognising and achieving personal goals, it is a forward looking process. People choose to work with a coach for a number of reasons which include:

 

• Work and life are out of balance
• The client wants to change an element of his/her life
• The client wants to map out a career path
• There is a gap in knowledge, skills, confidence or resources
• The client wants to identify his/her core strengths
• The client desires his/her work life balance to be simpler and less complicated
• There is a lack of clarity and there are choices to be made

 

To be successful in the application of coaching, the coach must focus completely on the client. In order to do this he/she must:

 

• Believe in the fact that clients hold the key to enable them to move towards their desired goals.
• Be willing and able to challenge the client in a way that will help them develop a new path to their desired goals.
• Fight the impulse to offer advice, the client already knows what to do.
• Listen completely to the client, i.e. to what the client says, doesn’t say and how the client acts.
• Become a “mirror” for the client so that the client can see and hear themselves in the actions of the coach.
• Remember at all times that it is the client’s agenda which must be followed. The coach is merely the guide to ensure that the client adheres to his/her agenda and that the agenda only changes with the agreement of the client.

 

The biggest issue with the coaching process is the elicitation of what the client wants to tackle. While there are tools to tackle this issue, this is the area where EQ-i testing could be of enormous benefit. Using a tool like the Bar-On EQ-i test method would have a very positive effect on the entire coaching process.

 

The Bar-On test is an on-line questionnaire type document that respondents self complete in the comfort of their own home (or work). It is also available in paper form but is much easier to complete on-line. The test covers five key areas of emotion which in turn contain a total of 15 sub sections. The Scales are listed as follows:

 

 

• Intrapersonal
• Self-Regard
• Emotional Self-awareness
• Assertiveness
• Independence
• Self-actualisation

 

• Interpersonal
• Empathy
• Social Responsibility
• Interpersonal Relationships

 

• Stress Management
• Stress Tolerance
• Impulse Control

 

• Adaptability
• Reality Testing
• Flexibility
• Problem Solving

 

• General Mood
• Optimism
• Happiness

 

 

The test produces a score for each of these headings as well as overall scores each of the key areas and for the test as a whole.

 

From a Coaching perspective, this is an ideal way of establishing initial indicators for areas that the client may like to look at for improvement. Because the test is taken by the client when the client wants to take it, there is less pressure to ‘come up’ with something to be discussed. The various validity controls that are built into the scoring mechanism of the test ensures that any attempt by the client to give an overly positive or negative impression will be caught and can be questioned by the Coach when going through the results. Furthermore, as the test is scored after completion, there is little opportunity for the client to measure his/her responses to balance the result. So how could the Bar-On EQ-i test be used as an indicator for the Coaching process?

 

To demonstrate how the test might be used in the Coaching process we will take an example using possible scores for Self-Regard, Interpersonal Relationships, Stress Tolerance and Happiness.

 

• Self-Regard.  This measures the client’s ability to accept him/herself as basically good, accept limitations and measure his/her feelings of self-confidence, self-adequacy etc. Let us imagine that the client scored low under this heading. This can indicate that the client has low self-esteem, lacks confidence or he/she is unhappy with their physical appearance. Issues with self-regard can have a detrimental effect on a persons overall optimism, happiness and self-actualisation. From a Coaching perspective, a client with self-regard issues needs urgent and careful attention. In a normal coaching session (without EQ-i Testing), it may take several visits to fully establish that the client has self-regard issues. This is because the Coach has to work with whatever the client tells him, whereas using the test highlights the matter immediately. By using effective questioning and listening skills as well as various NLP techniques (such as Time-line Therapy), the coach will be able to take the client through a process which will dramatically improve his/her image of themselves.

 

• Interpersonal Relationships. This measures the client’s ability to develop and maintain mutually satisfying relationships with others. A low score in this area can be an indication that the client is a loner, does not like intimacy or is not able to share feelings. This can affect their overall happiness and levels of optimism as well as affecting their overall independence. Working with a client the coach will develop a plan to improve their ability to interact with others. This process may involve some NLP techniques and questioning to establish the root cause of the problem followed by developing new beliefs that will help the client to become more confident and more open to interaction. The final phase will be to anchor the new beliefs and actions so that the client will be able to continue to develop the new skills after the coaching process has finished.

 

• Stress Tolerance. This is possibly one of the most worrying (and life threatening) issues. This scale measures the client’s ability to withstand adverse events and stressful situations without falling apart. A low score here could indicate that the client is reactive, fearful or has high anxiety levels. Ultimately, poor stress tolerance can lead to a number of health issues if it isn’t tackled, including High Blood Pressure, Heart Attack or nervous breakdown. As in the case of Self-regard, the EQ-i test can highlight a potential issue here faster than through a normal coaching process. The low score can be due to a number of external factors which the Coach will seek to establish before beginning to work with the client to overcome the problem. Once again, through the use of various Coaching and NLP techniques, the Coach will be able to improve the client’s belief system for dealing with stress as well as anchoring the new beliefs so that they become the norm for the client.

 

• Happiness.  This scale measures the client’s overall level of satisfaction with his/her life. A low score here could indicate that the client is dissatisfied with life, depressed or they tend to look for the negative rather than the positive in life. This can be a very heavy burden for a client to carry. Again, by using the test, the coach is more likely to spot a potential issue with the client’s happiness level than if the had to rely on more traditional methods. This is simply due to the fact that a client can feign happiness during the session and (if they are good at it) may block, or suppress, any negative thoughts during the session. Once the issue has been established the coach will be able to challenge the client’s perception on life. it may be necessary to use NLP tools such as Time-line Therapy to take the client to a memory that has sparked the current outlook and thereby adjust the belief that has come from the memory. Again, the Coach will use Coaching and NLP tools to verify the indicated score, to challenge the client’s beliefs regarding their happiness and to develop new Neuro links with the new beliefs and improved happiness levels.

 

 

Conclusion:

 

The last 30 years have seen some dramatic breakthroughs in our understanding of human psychology, intelligence and in the area of Neuro-science. There is now a greater understanding and acceptance of human emotions as a critical aspects of human behaviour. The evolution of therapies such as NLP and Coaching have demonstrated the power of the human mind and the control we can have over all aspects of our neurology. The availability of EQ-i tests such as the Bar-On test method offer enhanced certainty to current coaching and NLP processes and will ensure that clients will be able to approach the overall coaching process with significantly less worry and stress.

 

Client’s regularly state that the most nervous part of the Coaching process occurs in the lead up to the first meeting. This has been due in part to the fact that the client has to think about what they wish to discuss, i.e. they have to identify the ‘problem’ area on their own. Using the EQ-i test methods removes this worry and has the added benefit of providing accurate results and a solid starting point. It is a little bit like enabling the client to avoid the possibility for the coaching version of ‘white coat syndrome’.

 

Coaches and clinicians now have the tools to provide the absolute best possible service for their clients in a ‘low impact’ and stress free format. The ability to utilise all three ‘systems’ will also open a number of new opportunities for further research.

 

 

References:

 

Abramson, C. & Satterfield, C. (2004) http://psychology.okstate.edu/museum/history/index.html

 

Bar-On, R. (2007) http://www.reuvenbaron.org/bar-on-model/conceptual-aspects.php

 

Damasio, Antonio (2003) Looking for Spinosa

 

MHS (2006) EQ-i Certification & Training Workbook

 

NLP University (1999) http://www.nlpu.com/whatnlp.htm

 

Plucker, Dr. J. (2007) http://www.indiana.edu/~intell/periodIndex.shtml

Update Comments:

The article below seeks to examine the neuropsychological elements of NLP and EI. It does not seek to establish a link between NLP and EI. Since completing the research piece below (which was submitted as a requirement for the IT Carlow Level 9 Special Award in Emotional Intelligence in 2010), I came across the iWAM (inventory of Work Attitudes and Motivators) EQ test. Unlike the Bar-On test, the iWAM measures attitudes which are the basis for a person’s competencies. iWAM goes much deeper into a subject’s metaprograms (cognitive patterns) to help understand why they do what they do in the work environment.

Introduction:

Since the time of Plato in Ancient Greece, man has been interested in human psychology. From these historical foundations, through the various schools of thought on the subject many of the greatest thinkers and academics have put forward theories on how and why man acts in the way that he does in different situations.

 

The last Century has seen probably the greatest evolution in the field of psychology. Individual areas of study have become areas of specialisation for academics and clinicians alike. The word Psychology is fast becoming the ‘umbrella’ term for a field of study that is made up of individual specialities such as: Behavioural, Cognitive or Neuro psychology in the same way that Surgery has become the umbrella term covering individual fields such as Neuro, Cardiac and Orthopedic surgery.

 

Over the last 30 plus years, human behaviour has come under the spotlight even more. Advances in brain analysis have been made easier by advances in technology that enables the study of live brains rather than earlier studies of the brains of deceased subjects. The arrival of technology such as functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) has had a major effect on the ability of scientists to go deeper and focus on the examination of specific aspects of brain function (Banich & Compton, 2003, p.65). Such developments have helped evolve the whole area of Neuropsychology and Cognitive Neuroscience.

 

According to Banich & Compton (2003) Neuropsychology “focuses on understanding mental processes in humans” while Cognitive Neuroscience “is critical to our understanding of the link between brain and mind”. It appears from this that the general area of neuroscience and neuropsychology seeks to go beyond the more traditional anatomical understanding of how the brain functions to examine some of the ‘softer’ functions of ‘why’ and ‘how’ we do what we do in given circumstances.

 

Since the 1970’s there have been developments in the field of human behaviour which until now have been largely considered to be outside the realms of academia and traditional medicine. Some, such as Neuro Linguistic Programming (NLP) are rarely viewed from an academic or medical perspective except to be predominantly ridiculed, while others, such as Emotional Intelligence (EI) are considered closer to the academic and psychology world.

 

Despite the apparent lack of formal support, NLP has evolved to become a global multi-million dollar business with supporters and practitioners claiming continual ‘treatment’ successes while non-supporters continue to dispute the validity of treatments.

 

Emotional Intelligence (EI) was first put forward by Goleman (1995) as a mechanism used by people to maintain positive interactions and relationships with others (Hayes, 2010, p. 206). Since then others, such as Bar-On & Parker (2000), Caruso & Solvay (2004), Mathews et al. (2004) and Stein & Book (2006) have further explored the concept of EI.

 

There are definite overlaps between Neuroscience, NLP and EI, despite the traditional academic reticence. The purpose of this piece is to investigate the extent of these overlaps, identify the links between them and establish the neuropsychological basis for all.

 

Discussion

Emotional Intelligence (EI)

Emotional Intelligence (EI) is widely accredited to Daniel Goleman (1995). Goleman defined EI as “…the capacity for recognising our own feelings and those of others, for motivating ourselves, and for managing emotions well in ourselves and in our relationships.” However during the 1980’s Dr. Reuven Bar-On developed a hypothesis called Emotional Quotient (EQ). Bar-On believed that EI was made up of overlapping skills and attitudes (Stein & Book, 2006, p 2). The Bar-On EQ-i (Emotional Quotient Intelligence) model measures EI under five general theme areas. These areas are subdivided into fifteen sub-scales.

 

Mayer and Salovey (1997) identified four branches of Emotional Intelligence (Bar-On & Parker, 2000 pp 107-111). The first relates to the person’s capacity to perceive. The second relates to the need for emotions to enter the cognitive system where they progress to the third branch: understanding of the emotion. Finally, there is the fourth branch: emotion management.

 

If the structure of the brain is examined it is possible to get a sense of where these branches can occur from a cognitive neuroscience point of view. In an area called the Medula there exists what are known as the Cranial nerves. According to Banich and Compton (2003, p 8-15), these are responsible for the receipt of sensory information. The Medula also houses the Reticular Activating System which is important for overall arousal and attention. The Hypothalamus controls behaviour while the Amygdala is thought to play a prominent role in emotional functioning.  The key for both Neuropsychologists and EI administrators is how people can use these parts of the brain to effectively manage their emotions and themselves.

 

According to Bar-On (reuvenbaron.org) the “Encyclopedia of Applied Psychology states that there are three major models of emotional intelligence:

1. the Mayer-Salovey model which defines this construct as the ability to perceive, understand, manage and use emotions to facilitate thinking;
2. the Goleman model which views it as an array of emotional and social competencies that contribute to managerial performance; and
3. the Bar-On model which describes EI as a cross-section of interrelated emotional and social competencies, skills and facilitators that impact intelligent behavior”

 

While EI has been broadly accepted in the field of psychology, Neuro Linguistic Programming (NLP) has not. The next section will examine this area from its inception and establish links between NLP, modern psychology and through our greater understanding of the brain, how NLP is applied to brain function.

 

Neuro Linguistic Programming (NLP)

A definitive (and academic) history of NLP does not exist. Its evolution is somewhat one of legend rather than that of a more formally recorded process. In his article (1996, p29) Ashley Dowlen notes the “degree to which NLP is personalised to these two individuals [Richard Bandler and John Grindler], with far less emphasis being accorded to either the origins of NLP or its subsequent development by others.”

 

According to NLP sites (Microdot.net, NLPNL.ca, Pe2000.com, et al.) NLP began in the mid 1970’s as a result of the coming together of Richard Bandler (a student of Mathematics and Psychology) and John Grindler (an Associate Professor of Linguistics). Both were at the University of California, Santa Cruz at the time. Bandler had become interested in the work of renowned therapists such as Virginia Satir and Frit Perls and had developed a keen interest in Gestalt Therapy which according to Butler and McManus (1998) looks ‘at the ways in which psychological processes are organised’. Hayes (2010) states that the four Gestalt principles of perception “show how our perceptual system automatically tries to make complete, meaningful units out of the information which it receives.”

 

At its core NLP is made up of three elements; Neuro (the mind – how we think, feel and imagine), Linguistic (language – speaking, written and unwritten) and Programming (reflects the way ideas and thought are organised into actions).

 

The NLP model looks at the brain as a computer in the same way that Cognitive Neuroscientists do (Banich, 2003, p2) and (McCrone, 2000, pp 11-13 &18-19). In NLP, it is suggested that every brain has the same basic neurological wiring but that from the moment of birth we become programmed by our environment and our individual experiences which result in our truly unique model of reality (Scribd.com, Microdot.net). This theory reflects that of philosophers and scientists such as Hans Vaihinger, Alfred Korzybski and Gregory Bateman (Bandler, 2008, p 20). The key inputs to this programming is controlled by our sensory processes. Through our senses we experience our world and we process them in a way that is truly unique to us.

 

However, NLP also believes that it is possible to re-program processes that are deemed unsuitable or damaging to (and by) the individual. This is largely done through challenging the person’s perception of reality and their experiences. In the same way that over time a computer can become less effective as it takes in and stores many unnecessary pieces of information, NLP practitioners believe that the brain, which is bombarded by hundreds of thousands of pieces of information (conscious and unconscious) every day, can be re-programmed to be more effective and focussed and ultimately change behaviour.

 

Bandler (2008, p 21) and Dowlen (1996, p 32) suggest that one of the key differences between NLP and the more mainstream subject of Psychology relates to the fact that while Psychology focuses much of its attention on ‘why’ people become ill, NLP seeks to identify ‘how’ change can be implemented to help the person move forward, that is, Psychology focuses on the past while NLP looks to the future. This is an area of great debate.

 

However, the diversification of the field of psychology has opened up the potential for similarity in the study of the human brain across many disciplines. One apparent common area of ground lies in the fact that both NLP and specialities such as Cognitive and Neuro psychologists focus on obtaining a greater understanding of behavioural elements of the person. NLP seeks to understand current versus desired behaviours. Cognitive and Neuro psychologists study how people think (Hayes, 2010 p 9) and (Banich, 2003 p 2). They examine the mental processes involved in the taking in and processing of information.

 

In his book Understanding Psychology (2010, pp 78-81), Dr. Nicky Hayes identifies a form of psychology called Positive Psychology. This is a relatively new phenomenon in psychology which has been accredited to Martin Seligman (1998). The basis of this theory is that “we all have the capacity to live a positive life, but we don’t all do it in the same way.” This type of psychological thinking appears to have very close links with the thinking of NLP. Seligman argued that an optimistic outlook to life could be learned through a change to thought habits .

 

Before Seligman, therapists used a method called the Pollyanna technique where subjects were encouraged to look for something good (no matter how small) to come from every event or problem (Hayes, 2010, p 81). This ties exactly into the NLP theories of ‘there is no such thing as failure; only feedback’ and the NLP phrase ‘seek the positive in every negative’.

 

Neuropsychologically NLP uses the power of the mind to control and alter unnecessary or unsuitable behaviours or states and helps the subject to define and set new, more acceptable behaviours. This works very much in the same way as clinical neuropsychologists work with patients with brain damage to help them ‘re-wire’ their neuro pathways in order to regain links and function within the brain.

 

Probably one of the most visual examples of NLP working with neural pathways lies in the example of medical procedures. For example, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iNZWsHFsZms contains a video of a dental procedure that was carried out without anaesthetic. In order for such a process to work, the NLP process would have to ‘affect’ the function of a number of brain elements such as the Cranial Nerves, the Reticular Activating System and the Hypothalamus in order to ‘block’ the body’s natural reaction to, and recognition of, pain.

 

Next we will examine the broader area of Neuropsychology and examine the works of some theorists in the area of Cognitive psychology to see how closely they match to NLP and EI.

 

 

Neuropsychology

Neuropsychology seeks to understand each element of the brain and how it works both individually and in conjunction with other elements.

 

Before the arrival of Neuropsychology as a formal field of study, many theories had been put forward to try to understand the link between cognition, emotion and clinical psychology. Eysenck and Keane (1990, ch 13, pp 465-497) mention many theories and work that has been conducted in this area by renowned people such as Freud (1915;1943), Zajonc (1980) and Lazarus (1982). It is interesting to see that many of these theorists used terms and discussions that are important to the fields of NLP and EI. According to Eysenck and Keane, Zajonc (1984) questioned whether “untransformed, pure sensory input directly generate emotional reactions?” Eysenck and Keane accept that this question can not yet be answered. Yet working with emotional ‘triggers’ are used in NLP to understand and control a client’s ‘state’ (mood).

 

Furthermore, Eysenck and Keane (1990) mention Bower’s Network Theory of Affect (1984). At its core, this Theory makes some assumptions which basically views emotions as individual units that are linked to other physical and psychological ‘systems’. These emotions can be triggered by external or internal events. These concepts appear to be very close to the views and approaches to NLP. It should be noted that Bower et al. even used hypnosis to tap into a specific mood or state, just as trance is used in NLP for the exact same purpose. Equally, the experiments that have been conducted by Zajonc, Lazarus and Bower et al. were all focussed on examining the emotions of the subjects

 

From an EI perspective, the work of theorists like Zajonc (1980), Lazarus (1984) and Bower et al. (1984) focussed on reaching a greater understanding of how people manage emotion and mood which is the core of EI.

 

Developments in Neuropsychology have further increased understanding of how the brain processes information. For example, it is known that the Hypothalamus controls behaviour (Banich & Compton 2003). This is known as state management in NLP. The links between the Hypothalamus and the Hormonal system are key to a number of internal processes including fight or flight reactions. EI manages how we react to given internal and external stimuli and situations. This implies that a subject with a higher functioning EI can in some way affect the flow of signals from the Hypothalamus resulting in greater ‘control’. Similarly in NLP terms, much of the work involved in this process come with helping the client to manage their ‘state’ or ‘mood’ which involves the control of how we react to events or stimuli. This process must in some way involve the control of ‘signals’ to and from the Hypothalamus.

 

 

Conclusion

This document has only begun the process of analysing the concepts behind NLP, EI and their basis in Neuropsychology.

 

Although not widely accepted (or considered) in more formal psychology and academic circles, NLP taps into many of the same practices as have been explored by theorists such as Zajonc (1980), Lazarus (1984), Bower (1984), and Seligman (1998). All have examined emotion and cognition as well as moods in their research with Bower even using the NLP tool of hypnosis in the experiments. Seligman probably came closest to the ethos of NLP through his theories on happiness and positive psychology where he argued that an optimistic outlook to life could be learned through a change to thought habits.

 

Similarly through the EI process, current behaviours are measured through the test process. These behaviours are measured across a number of scales and sub-scales and range from Intra-personal through Inter-personal to general mood. The results from this test, provide a starting point for a subject’s emotional improvement through changing habits or behaviours. As with NLP, these changes must take place at the subject’s neuropsychological level for them to be lasting.

 

Any form of behavioural change requires a change at the neuropsychological level. Using the analogy of computer science (as adopted by many psychologists and neuroscientists) behaviours can be changed through the re-wiring of the pathways within the brain. EI and NLP help identify the changes that need to be made and NLP provides the non-invasive programming tools to make the changes.

 

It is about time that all approaches to psychology, emotional and behavioural science were reviewed and consolidated into the one field of study. After all, NLP and EI were born out of psychology and were modelled on psychology practices. Neuropsychology has increased the potential for these subjects to be studied at a deeper level as well as opening up possible new avenues of study.

 

When all is said and done, all three topics are areas of current study and evolution as well as all serving the same purpose; helping clients, patients or subjects.

 

References:

Websites:

http://www-psych.stanford.edu/~psyphy/papers.html

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed

http://www.pe2000.com/nlp-history.htm

http://www.nlpnl.ca

http://nlpmarin.com/nlp-what-it-is-

http://www.reuvenbaron.org

http://www.gestalt.on.ca/

http://www.microdot.net/nlp/

http://www.achievingexcellence.com/

http://www.scribd.com/

http://www.youtube.com/

 

Books & Articles:

Bandler, Richard, 2008. Make Your Life Great: Guide to Trace-Formation. Great Britain, Harper Element

 

Banich, Marie T. & Compton, Rebecca J., 2003. Cognitive Neuroscience (International Edition) 3rd Edition, USA, Wadsworth Cengage Learning

 

Bar-On, Reuvan & Parker, James D.A., 2000. The Handbook of Emotional Intelligence: Theory, Development, Assessment, and Application at Home, School, and in the Workplace, USA, Jossey-Bass

 

Birholtz, Laura S., 1981. Neurolinguistic Programming: testing some basic assumptions, Dissertation Abstracts International 42(5), 2042-B The Fielding Institute, 131 pp. Pub. = AAC8118324

 

Butler, Gillian and McManus, Freda. 1998. Psychology: A Very Short Introduction. Great Britain, Oxford University Press.

 

Caruso, David R. & Salovey, Peter, 2004. The Emotionally Intelligent Manager, USA, Jossey-Bass

 

Dowlen, Ashley. 1996. NLP – Help or Hype? Investigating the Uses of Neuro-linguistic Programming in Management Learning, Career Development International pp 27-34, UK, MCB University Press

 

Eysenck, Michael W. & Keane, Mark T., 1990. Cognitive Psychology: A Student’s Handbook, UK, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Ltd.

 

Goleman, Daniel. 1995. Emotional Intelligence: Why it can matter more than IQ. Great Britain, Bloomsbury Publishing Ltd.

 

Hayes, Nicky, 2010. Understand Psychology, Great Britain, Hodder Education

 

Knight, Sue, 2002. NLP at Work: The Difference that Makes a Difference in Business 2ed. Finland, Nicholas Brealey Publishing

 

Matthews, G. Zeidner, M. & Roberts, R. D., 2002. Emotional Intelligence: Science and Myth, USA, MIT

 

McCrone, J., 2000. Going Inside London, Faber & Faber

 

Stein, Steven J. & Book, Howard E., 2006. The EQ Edge: Emotional Intelligence and Your Success, Canada, John Wiley & Sons (Canada) Ltd.

 

(This Article originally appeared on my other website; www.secs.ie)

(This article was submitted as part of the required course work for a Special Award in Emotional Intelligence at Carlow Institute of Technology, 2010)

Introduction:
The last century has seen significantly increased developments in the field of human psychology and our overall understanding of how we ʻoperateʼ as individuals and in our interactions with our environment. This assignment will examine the evolution of human intelligence as well as exploring how the modern concepts of Coaching, Neuro Linguistic Programming (NLP) and Emotional Intelligence (EQ-i) testing can be used in a clinical environment when working with clients.

History:
The subject of Psychology has been studied since ancient times. According to Charles Abramson and Craig Satterfield (2004) the first recorded psychological experiment was conducted in Egypt by Psamtik I in 700 BCE. Dr. Jonathan Plucker (2007) highlights the various ʻagesʼ in the evolution of Human Intelligence as follows:

• Historical Foundations. This period includes all early foundation work ranging from Plato to Itard.
• Modern Foundations. This is the period when Psychology began to separate from subjects like Mathematics, Philosophy and Biology and includes the works of individuals like Locke and Charcot.
• The Great Schools. This period marked the advent of many of the great European Schools in Psychology. Many of the famous American Psychologists studied in Europe and later returned to the US and opened similar facilities there. This period also marks the increase in popularity of the study of Intelligence, bolstered by the work of Wilhelm Wundt, James McKeen Cattell, G. S. Hall, and Hermann Ebbinghaus.
• The Great Schoolsʼ Influence. This period marked the increase in the level of theoretical and empirical investigations in intelligence. One of the greatest milestones of the period was the US Armyʼs Alpha and Beta testing program which were developed under the direction of Robert Mearns Yerkes. These programs provided the first Group Intelligence Tests and were the basis for all subsequent testing.
• Contemporary Explorations. This period continued to build on the work of the previous period. New Statistical methods helped to make standardised testing of intelligence and achievement a way of life in most Western countries.
• Current Efforts. Current developments in intelligence theories particularly in the formation of more complex multiple intelligence theories have resulted in a de-emphasis on the use of traditional standardised test methods. Technological advances have also enabled the development of new test methods. Finally this period has also witnessed the emergence of new area of study in which environmental, biological, and psychological aspects of intelligence are studied simultaneously. This has been brought about by the development of new genetic and neurological methodologies.

Emotional Intelligence testing (EQ-i) has its genesis in the current ʻeraʼ of psychology evolution. EQ-i tests, such as the Bar-On method measure the “emotional-social intelligence as a cross-section of interrelated emotional and social competencies, skills and facilitators that impact intelligent behavior” (Bar-On, Reuvens (2007)).

Neuro Linguistic Programming (NLP) began in the 1970ʼs as a result of the work of John Grinder (Linguistics) and Richard Bandler (mathematics and gestalt therapy). According to the NLP University (1999), ʻNLP is a multi-dimensional process that involves the development of behavioral competence and flexibility, but also involves strategic thinking and an understanding of the mental and cognitive processes behind behaviorʼ.

NLP presupposes that:

• As human beings we experience and respond to the world around us through our sensory representational systems. It is these experiences that give us our ʻrealityʼ. In turn the ʻrealityʼ that we experience determine how we behave.
• The processes that take place within us (intra) as well as between us (inter), other human beings and our environment are systemic. Together these processes form a network of complex systems and sub-systems which interact and influence each other.

In his book ʻLooking for Spinosaʼ (2003), Antonio Damasio separates emotions from feelings and suggests that “..emotions are actions or movements, many of them public, visible to others as they occur in the face, in the voice and in specific behaviours”. He further suggests that “Feelings are always hidden…playing out in the theater of the mind”.

Throughout his book, Damasio echoes the theory put forward by the philosopher, Spinosa in the 17th century that link the processes of the body and the mind together. This view appears to support that of NLP.

The profession of Coaching has its origins in North America in the 1980ʼs when a former Financial Planner, Thomas J Leonard recognised the need to provide professional coaching to help people. He developed his skills over the next ten years and set up the Coaching University in the early 90ʼs. Since then coaching has evolved as a global profession.

Coaching focuses on helping the client to determine and achieve personal goals. It is a thought provoking and creative process that inspires them to maximise their personal and professional potential. Because the coach works with the client, the coach/client relationship must be a partnership in order to be successful. Because Coaching focuses on working with people to identify and achieve future personal goals, it deals a lot more with emotions and feelings.

What we have seen is that in the latter part of the 20th Century there has been considerable movement away from the traditional practices in psychology towards a ʻsofterʼ approach which looks more to understand how we perceive and interact with our surroundings as well as ourselves.

In the next section, we will observe how the three distinct practices of Coaching, NLP and EQ-i could be combined to form a very effective method for helping people identify and overcome many issues.

Coaching, NLP and EQ-i as a Clinical Process:
We have seen how the three distinct processes of Coaching, NLP and EQ-i developed, particularly over the last 30 years or so. As we enter the 21st Century, the ability to combine the processes of all three and use them to effectively help an individual must be considered.

Coaching and NLP have been used both separately and together since they began. Potential clients will find Practitioners who use either or both during their sessions. In reality, Coaching is the basis for working with clients.

As the coaching process works towards recognising and achieving personal goals, it is a forward looking process. People choose to work with a coach for a number of reasons which include:

• Work and life are out of balance
• The client wants to change an element of his/her life
• The client wants to map out a career path
• There is a gap in knowledge, skills, confidence or resources
• The client wants to identify his/her core strengths
• The client desires his/her work life balance to be simpler and less complicated
• There is a lack of clarity and there are choices to be made

To be successful in the application of coaching, the coach must focus completely on the client. In order to do this he/she must:

• Believe in the fact that clients hold the key to enable them to move towards their desired goals.
• Be willing and able to challenge the client in a way that will help them develop a new path to their desired goals.
• Fight the impulse to offer advice, the client already knows what to do.
• Listen completely to the client, i.e. to what the client says, doesn’t say and how the client acts.
• Become a “mirror” for the client so that the client can see and hear themselves in the actions of the coach.
• Remember at all times that it is the clientʼs agenda which must be followed. The coach is merely the guide to ensure that the client adheres to his/her agenda and that the agenda only changes with the agreement of the client.

The biggest issue with the coaching process is the elicitation of what the client wants to tackle. While there are tools to tackle this issue, this is the area where EQ-i testing could be of enormous benefit. Using a tool like the Bar-On EQ-i test method would have a very positive effect on the entire coaching process.

The Bar-On test is an on-line questionnaire type document that respondents self complete in the comfort of their own home (or work). It is also available in paper form but is much easier to complete on-line. The test covers five key areas of emotion which in turn contain a total of 15 sub sections. The Scales are listed as follows:

✓  IntRApersonal

• Self-Regard
• Emotional Self-awareness
• Assertiveness
• Independence
• Self-actualisation

✓  IntERpersonal

• Empathy
• Social Responsibility
• Interpersonal Relationships

✓  Stress Management

• Stress Tolerance
• Impulse Control

✓  Adaptability

• Reality Testing
• Flexibility
• Problem Solving

✓  General Mood

• Optimism
• Happiness

The test produces a score for each of these headings as well as overall scores each of the key areas and for the test as a whole. From a Coaching perspective, this is an ideal way of establishing initial indicators for areas that the client may like to look at for improvement. Because the test is taken by the client when the client wants to take it, there is less pressure to ʻcome upʼ with something to be discussed. The various validity controls that are built into the scoring mechanism of the test ensures that any attempt by the client to give an overly positive or negative impression will be caught and can be questioned by the Coach when going through the results.

Furthermore, as the test is scored after completion, there is little opportunity for the client to measure his/her responses to balance the result. So how could the Bar-On EQ-i test be used as an indicator for the Coaching process?

To demonstrate how the test might be used in the Coaching process we will take an example using possible scores for Self-Regard, Interpersonal Relationships, Stress Tolerance and Happiness.

• Self-Regard. This measures the clientʼs ability to accept him/herself as basically good, accept limitations and measure his/her feelings of selfconfidence, self-adequacy etc. Let us imagine that the client scored low under this heading. This can indicate that the client has low self-esteem, lacks confidence or he/she is unhappy with their physical appearance. Issues with self-regard can have a detrimental effect on a persons overall optimism, happiness and self-actualisation. From a Coaching perspective, a client with self-regard issues needs urgent and careful attention. In a normal coaching session (without EQ-i Testing), it may take several visits to fully establish that the client has self-regard issues. This is because the Coach has to work with whatever the client tells him, whereas using the test highlights the matter immediately. By using effective questioning and listening skills as well as various NLP techniques (such as Time-line Therapy), the coach will be able to take the client through a process which will dramatically improve his/her image of themselves.

• Interpersonal Relationships. This measures the clientʼs ability to develop and maintain mutually satisfying relationships with others. A low score in this area can be an indication that the client is a loner, does not like intimacy or is not able to share feelings. This can affect their overall happiness and levels of optimism as well as affecting their overall independence. Working with a client the coach will develop a plan to improve their ability to interact with others. This process may involve some NLP techniques and questioning to establish the root cause of the problem followed by developing new beliefs that will help the client to become more confident and more open to interaction. The final phase will be to anchor the new beliefs and actions so that the client will be able to continue to develop the new skills after the coaching process has finished.

• Stress Tolerance. This is possibly one of the most worrying (and life threatening) issues. This scale measures the clientʼs ability to withstand adverse events and stressful situations without falling apart. A low score here could indicate that the client is reactive, fearful or has high anxiety levels. Ultimately, poor stress tolerance can lead to a number of health issues if it isnʼt tackled, including High Blood Pressure, Heart Attack or nervous breakdown. As in the case of Self-regard, the EQ-i test can highlight a potential issue here faster than through a normal coaching process. The low score can be due to a number of external factors which the Coach will seek to establish before beginning to work with the client to overcome the problem. Once again, through the use of various Coaching and NLP techniques, the Coach will be able to improve the clientʼs belief system for dealing with stress as well as anchoring the new beliefs so that they become the norm for the client.

• Happiness. This scale measures the clientʼs overall level of satisfaction with his/her life. A low score here could indicate that the client is dissatisfied with life, depressed or they tend to look for the negative rather than the positive in life. This can be a very heavy burden for a client to carry. Again, by using the test, the coach is more likely to spot a potential issue with the clientʼs happiness level than if the had to rely on more traditional methods. This is simply due to the fact that a client can feign happiness during the session and (if they are good at it) may block, or suppress, any negative thoughts during the session. Once the issue has been established the coach will be able to challenge the clientʼs perception on life. it may be necessary to use NLP tools such as Time-line Therapy to take the client to a memory that has sparked the current outlook and thereby adjust the belief that has come from the memory. Again, the Coach will use Coaching and NLP tools to verify the indicated score, to challenge the clientʼs beliefs regarding their happiness and to develop new Neuro links with the new beliefs and improved happiness levels.

Conclusion:

The last 30 years have seen some dramatic breakthroughs in our understanding of human psychology, intelligence and in the area of Neuro-science. There is now a greater understanding and acceptance of human emotions as a critical aspects of human behaviour. The evolution of therapies such as NLP and Coaching have demonstrated the power of the human mind and the control we can have over all aspects of our neurology. The availability of EQ-i tests such as the Bar-On test method offer enhanced certainty to current coaching and NLP processes and will ensure that clients will be able to approach the overall coaching process with significantly less worry and stress.

Clientʼs regularly state that the most nervous part of the Coaching process occurs in the lead up to the first meeting. This has been due in part to the fact that the client has to think about what they wish to discuss, i.e. they have to identify the ʻproblemʼ area on their own. Using the EQ-i test methods removes this worry and has the added benefit of providing accurate results and a solid starting point. It is a little bit like enabling the client to avoid the possibility for the coaching version of ʻwhite coat syndromeʼ.

Coaches and clinicians now have the tools to provide the absolute best possible service for their clients in a ʻlow impactʼ and stress free format. The ability to utilise all three ʻsystemsʼ will also open a number of new opportunities for further research.

References:

Abramson, C. & Satterfield, C. (2004)
http://psychology.okstate.edu/museum/history/index.html
Bar-On, R. (2007) http://www.reuvenbaron.org/bar-on-model/conceptual-aspects.php
Damasio, Antonio (2003) Looking for Spinosa
MHS (2006) EQ-i Certification & Training Workbook
NLP University (1999) http://www.nlpu.com/whatnlp.htm